A Roadmap for Increasing Running Speed in Physically Active Persons

Running for Fitness

Suggestions and tips to improve the running experience 

A previous post gave a general overview of running and sprinting relevant to fitness and recreational runners, team sport athletes, and multisports enthusiasts. In this second post, part 2, a more detailed look at running is undertaken.

Running as an Ecosystem

Running is an enjoyable bipedal activity done without conscious thought. A glance at any playground is teeming with children running to and fro effortlessly for hours. Understanding a few of its nuances is desirable for running competitively or as a form of exercise.

As a general concept, running:

1. Uses the body's aerobic and anaerobic energy systems to fuel running activities.

2. Is functional via the cooperative efforts of the muscles (motors) of the core, anterior and posterior thigh, and posterior leg.

3. The native characteristics of the (muscles) motors drive performances.

4. It provides a host of health benefits
   

1.  Energy Systems – Aerobic versus Anaerobic

Endurance running at moderate to fast speeds is a feature of middle and elite long-distance runners. Done at a steady pace facilitates running and covers a continuous distance with an elevated but constant breathing pattern and heart rate. The motors of the body of an endurance runner enabling a continuous run are the slow-twitch muscle fibres of the lower limbs. The above noted combination of features is known as aerobic running or aerobically.

Aerobic running is characterized by

• Moderate to moderately fast running speeds.

• Continuous running.

• Use a steady running pace.

• The primary use of slow-twitch muscle fibers

• Elevation in breathing, increasing pulse rate, and a stronger heartbeat.

Anaerobic running is associated with moderately fast to faster running speeds in short bursts or during segments of aerobic endurance running. Anaerobic running is also a feature of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) or sprint interval training. Anaerobic endurance running is characterized by:

1. Running at sub-maximal speeds of 75 - 85% of the current maximum running speed using 300 – 800 metres distances. For example, a mile run into 4*400m runs at 80-82% effort with 3-4 minutes of recovery–interval training.

2. Continuous "speed play" or fartlek running activities in training. These runs last 20 – 60 minutes, interspersed with the random injection of speed running efforts at submaximal running speeds (80 – 85%). These "bursts of speed" can vary around 20 – 80 metres.

3. Use intermediate fast-twitch and maybe fast-twitch muscle fibres.

4. Sharp increases in physiological parameters – breathing rate and depth, pulse rate, heart rate, and sweat rate

5. Incomplete rest intervals or recovery periods at a reduced running pace allowing the physiological parameters to decrease toward normal.

2. Motors – Multi-joint Muscles

Efficient running requires a coordinated synergy between the joints, muscles, and tendons. This synergy allows running at varying speeds, over varying distances, and on different types of surfaces.

Running is multi-joint, with the main actors being the foot, ankle, knee, and hip girdle (hip joint and sacroiliac articulation). The spine (lumbar/back, thoracic/middle back, and cervical/neck) and upper limbs (shoulders, elbows, wrist) act as support joints. Coordination of the multi-joint actions allows running to be:

• Smooth, continuous and non-jarring

• Energy efficient

• Adaptable to various surfaces and terrains

• Low risk of injury

These multi-joints function as levers in synergy with the function of the muscles (i.e., motors), enhancing each run's efficiency.

The muscles/motors are known as skeletal or striated muscles. The skeletal muscles facilitate the voluntary actions necessary to perform each running step. The coordinated actions are concentric (flexing, shortening), eccentric (relaxing, lengthening), and isometric (stabilizing, holding).

The primary muscle/motor groups are:

A.  Core muscle group

B.   Gluteal region

C.   Thigh muscles

D.   Leg muscles

A.  Core Muscle Group

These muscles function as stabilizers and posture muscles. A strong core enhances each runner's ability to run faster, reduces lower limb impact on ground contact, and provides a stable foundation for maximum leg power output. The benefits of a strong core are known as core stability. The following muscles comprise the core:

• Midline abdominal wall muscles: Rectus abdominis

• Anterolateral abdominal wall muscles: external abdominal oblique, internal abdominal oblique, transversus abdominis.

• Posterior abdominal wall muscles: quadratus, psoas major, psoas minor, iliacus, the posterior aspect of the diaphragm.

Core musculature

Kibler et al. (1) articulate the concept of core stability as follows:

“Core stability is defined as the ability to control the position and motion of the trunk over the pelvis to allow optimum production, transfer, and control of force and motion to the terminal segment in integrated athletic activities. Core muscle activity is best understood as the pre-programmed integration of local, single-joint muscles and multi-joint muscles to provide stability and produce motion. This results in proximal stability for distal mobility, a proximal to distal patterning of generation of force and the creation of interactive moments that move and protect distal joints".

B.  Gluteal Region 

These muscles function as shock absorbers, stabilizers, and force generators in the lower limb. The following muscles comprise the gluteal area:

• Glutes – gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus.

• Piriformis

Gluteal muscles

C.  Thigh Muscles

The powerful thigh muscles are force generators during running. The following muscles comprise the thigh:

·         Quadriceps – quad = 4, ceps = head – rectus femoris, vastus medialis, lateral medialis, vastus intermedius

• Hamstrings – biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus

• Hip flexor muscle – psoas major, psoas minor, iliacus.

Anterior Thigh Muscles

Posterior Thigh Muscles

D.  Leg Muscles

During each running step, the leg muscles are facilitators of the springs (Achilles tendon). The calf muscles (gastrocnemius, soleus) on the posterior or backside region of the leg continue downwards as the Achilles tendon. The Achilles tendon inserts into the rear area of the calcaneus or heel bone and functions as a pulley at the ankle joint.

Other leg Insertions of the extrinsic foot muscle tendons on the plantar surface of the foot

• Tibialis posterior

• Peroneus brevis

• Peroneus longus

Lower Leg Muscles

The lower limb joints and main motors (glutes and leg muscles) cooperate to enhance the runner's running efficiency (economy).

3. Motors and Their Composition – Muscle Fibre Types

Each of the primary motors/muscles accesses three subsets of muscle fibre types during running. These fibre types have the following features:

 Type 1 muscle fibres:

• Slow contraction speeds,

• Used preferentially during aerobic/endurance running,

• Produces low-power muscle fibre contractions over long periods and

• Fatigue slowly.

Type 2 A muscle fibres:

• The endurance runner uses type 2A fibres during interval training

• During endurance runs, run at moderate to fast speed.

• These fibres contract faster than type 1 and

• Fatigue at a quicker rate than type 1A fibres.

Type 2 B muscle fibres:

• These muscle fibres have very fast contraction speeds,

• Produce powerful muscle fibre contractions,

• They are easily fatigable.

• Found in large concentrations in speed-type athletes and runners.

4.  Health Benefits

Running enhances certain aspects of health. Running

a. Provides cardiovascular health benefits, e.g., improves cardiovascular system function, reduces high blood pressure, and improves general heart health.

b. Improves insulin sensitivity, i.e., the ability of the body to use the hormone insulin to effectively remove glucose from the bloodstream after carbohydrates and protein digestion.

c.  Running uses the large muscles of the thighs and glutes and requires a constant and ample supply of muscle glucose. The large withdrawal of glucose from the bloodstream by exercising assists the body in maintaining normal blood glucose levels.

d.  Reduce body fat, maintain lean mass, and improve overall body composition (body fat percentage) with an appropriate nutrition/diet plan.

e.   It is a valuable addition as a lifestyle strategy to encourage weight loss.

f.    Enhances immunity

g.   Enhances mood via an increase in circulating endorphins

h.       Increases bone density.

A Roadmap to the Fitness Runner Increasing Running Speed

Athletes who compete in speed events (100m) typically use maximum and explosive resistance exercises in the gym and field to improve running speed. These particular exercises stimulate the type 2A and 2B muscle fibres. Additionally, these explosive exercises improve lower extremity stiffness and increase the ability of the Achilles tendon to reuse elastic energy and generate and tolerate large ground reaction forces. Rapid and significant force production is the primary performance indicator of speed running. 

Maximum and explosive resistance training to complement endurance running is a win-win for increasing running speeds for all runners, team sport athletes, and multisports enthusiasts.

The resistance exercises fall into three categories; typical examples are:

1. Multijoint Strengthening exercises: squats, lunges, hamstring exercises, foot-lower leg.

2. Multijoint Explosive exercises: barbell/hex bar/dumbbell jump squats, barbell/dumbbell split jumps, cleans, push press, push jerk 

3. Plyometric exercises: alternate bounds, double leg bounds, hurdle hops.

The broader questions for the fitness runner are: 

1. Will these special resistance exercises increase the strength of my legs?

2. Will the increase in leg strength improve my running speeds?

3. Will increasing my running speeds result in faster finishing times? or

4. Will increasing my running speed improve my running economy? 

Following are summaries of three research studies examining the outcomes of concurrent training programs, complex and resistance exercises, and endurance-only training programs on athletic performance. Fitness and recreational runners, team sports athletes, multisports enthusiasts, and their coaches looking for additional and detailed information to tweak their running programs can access the references. 

In the first summary, Li et al. (2) investigated the potential benefits of 6 weeks of complex or heavy strength training twice weekly for 38 recreational marathon runners ages 27 to 35. The study aimed to discover if supplementing the runner's endurance training with complex or heavy strength training exercises optimizes their endurance performance.

During the study, the runners were assigned to the following three groups:

1. Complex training (CPX) is a multi-component method wherein heavy strength and plyometric exercises alternate within a single session. 

2. Heavy strength training (HST)

3. Endurance-strength (EST) combined with running endurance training

The runners were tested before and after the six weeks study window. The tests used were:

1. Body composition with a bioimpedance analyzer

2. One maximum repetition strength (1RM) back squat, 

3. Squat jump 

4. Countermovement jump

5. Leg press using an isokinetic machine

6. Running economy (RE) and 

7. Velocity at VO2max (vVO2max) test

The order of testing was: 

Day 1:

• Body composition

• 1RM strength, 

• Squat Jump

• Countermovement jump

• Isokinetic leg press

Day 2:

• Running economy

• VO2max tests 

The table below is adapted from the original article and gives the strength training protocol during the six weeks of training. 

Six Week Periodization Plan Across the Three Training Groups

In summary, the authors concluded that six weeks of complex or heavy strength training two times per week can be added to recreational marathon runners' endurance training to optimize their endurance performance.

In the second summary, researchers Prieto-González and Sedlacek conducted a 12-week training protocol with recreational runners, including a resistance training group, an endurance training group, and a concurrent training group. The study aimed to determine which protocols benefited the recreational runners the most. 

The table below shows how the researchers assigned the protocols and the changes within each treatment group after 12 weeks.

Strength Training Protocol During the Concurrent Training Intervention

The table below shows selected weeks of the training programs used with each treatment group.

Running-specific Strength Training group (RSSTG) Exercise Plan

Endurance Training Group (ETG) Exercise Plan

The table shows overall changes in test variables for each training group.

Test Results Across the Three Experimental Groups

Based on the results of the 12-week study, the key takeaways are:

1. Alternating resistance and endurance training days improve recreational runners' body composition and running economy.

2. In recreational runners, resistance training improves maximum strength and running economy.

3. In recreational runners, endurance training improves running economy, plus aerobic and anaerobic endurance.

4. In recreational runners, alternating days of resistance and endurance reaps the benefits of the separate training methods.

In summary, recreational runners who exercise resistance in their weekly running program benefit from increased maximum strength and running economy. The positive contributions the resistance exercises offer to improve running speed make including resistance exercises a win-win proposition for the recreational runner.

In the third study, Huiberts et al. (4) noted that "many sports require maximal strength and endurance performance." This observation is obvious considering team-based sports athletes participating in sports that demand a combination of endurance and running (submaximal to approaching maximal speeds). Team sports athletes such as fast bowlers in cricket, rugby, football, field hockey, and NFL players in certain positions benefit from finding the right balance. These team sports are similar to recreational runners looking towards concurrent strength/power and endurance methods to improve their running performance.

 The authors of the systematic review in summary conclusion presented their findings as follows:

“This meta-analysis shows that concurrent strength and endurance training resulted in blunted lower-body strength adaptations in males but not in females. Concurrent training also resulted in impaired improvements in ̇VO2max in untrained but not in trained or highly trained athletes. Our meta-analysis indicated that highly strength- or endurance trained athletes are under-represented in the concurrent training literature. In summary, inter-individual differences in sex and training status should be considered when optimizing concurrent training prescription in individual athletes”.

Huiberts et al. presented some “cautionary” practical advice to athletes and coaches looking to design a program using concurrent strength and endurance training. The main points are:

1. There is a potential small-to-moderate negative effect on improving strength and enhanced training adaptations. 

2. There is a dulling effect on leg strength in male athletes using concurrent training. 

3. Female athletes are less affected than males using concurrent training methods to increase leg strength while engaging in endurance training.  

4. The blunting effect of concurrent training occurs with endurance related factors such as VO2 max. 

Key Takeaways

1. Resistance and plyometrics exercises can assist running dependent athletes with increasing their running speeds

2.  Use concurrent training means and methods to optimize speed increases

3.   Employ resistance and endurance training on alternate days or every third day.

References

1. Kibler WB, Press J, Sciascia A. The role of core stability in athletic function. Sports Med. 2006;36(3):189-98. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200636030-00001. PMID: 16526831.

2. Fei Li , George P. Nassis , Yue Shi , Guangqiang Han , Xiaohui Zhang , Binghong Gao & Haiyong Ding (2020): Concurrent complex and endurance training for recreational marathon runners: Effects on neuromuscular and running performance, European Journal of Sport Science, DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1829080

3. Prieto-González, P.; Sedlacek, J. Effects of Running-Specific Strength Training, Endurance Training, and Concurrent Training on Recreational Endurance Athletes’ Performance and Selected Anthropometric Parameters. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10773. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710773

4. Huiberts, Raven & Wüst, Rob & Van der Zwaard, Stephan. (2023). Concurrent Strength and Endurance Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Impact of Sex and Training Status. Sports Medicine. 1-19. 10.1007/s40279-023-01943-9.